References


Aalberg, T., Strömbäck,	J., & De Vreese, C. H. (2011). “The framing of politics as strategy and game: A	review	of	concepts,	operationalizations	and	key	findings.”	Journalism,	
1464884911427799.
Abass,	J.	(2012).	The	Role	of	Print	Media	in	Deepening	Democracy	in	Nigeria:	Content	Analysis
of	Daily	Trust	and	Punch	Newspapers	coverage	of	2011	Presidential	Election	(Post	Graduate	
diploma).	Ahmadu	Bello	University,	Zaria	Kaduna.
Abutudu,	M.,	Iwuamadi,	K.	and	Ibrahim,	J.	(2011).	Elections	and	the	management	of	diversity	in	
Nigeria.
Adigwe,	H.,	and	Grau,	I.	(2007).	When	God	Says	Yes	- Who	Can	Say	No?	Religion	as	a	Factor	in	
Political	Discourse	in	Nigeria	since	the	1960s.	Stichproben.	Wiener	Zeitschrift	fürkritische	
Afrikastudien	Nr.	13/2007,	7.	p.81.	Retrieved	from	
http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/Stichproben/Nr13_	Adigwe_Grau.pdf.
Adogame,	A.	(2006).	Politicization	of	Religion	and	Religionization	of	Politics	in	Nigeria.	In	C.J.	
Korieh	and	G.U.	Nwokeji	(eds),	Religion,	History,	and	Politics	in	Nigeria.	Oxford:	University	Press	
of	America.	p.128.
Agba,	P.C	(2006).	Mass	media	and	electioneering	campaign	reporting.	The	contemporary	
dimension.	International	Journal	of	Communication,	(5),	23-33.
Aghamelu,	F.	(2013).	“The	Role	of	the	Mass	Media	in	the	Nigerian	Electoral	Process.” Unizik	
Journal	of	Arts	and	Humanities,	[online]	14(2).	Available	at:	
https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ujah/article/view/101202/91925	[Accessed	3	Feb.	2019].
89
Ajaero,	I.	D.	(2014).	An	Analysis	of Newspaper	Framing	and Public	Perception	of	the	
2012Flooding	in	Some	Selected States	in	Southern	Nigeria.	An	unpublished	research	project	
submitted	in	partial	fulfilment	of	the	requirements	for	the	award	of	Master	of	Arts	(M.A)	
degree	from	the	Department	of	Mass	Communication,	University	of	Nigeria,	Nsukka.
Akubo,	A.	and	Yakubu,	A.	(2014).	Political	Parties	and	Democratic	Consolidation	in	Nigeria’s	
Fourth	Republic.	Global	Journal	of	Political	Science	and	Administration,	2(3),	pp.79-108.
Alawode,	S.	and	Adesanya,	O.	(2016).	Content	analysis	of	2015	election	political	advertisements	
in	selected	national	dailies	of	Nigeria. European	Scientific	Journal,	[online]	12(5).	Available	at:	
https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/7027	[Accessed	12	Mar.	2019].
Aljazeera	(2007).	Nigeria	poll	boycott	threat	fades.	[online]	Available	at:	
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2007/04/200852512492994369.html	[Accessed	12	
May	2019].
Aljazeera.	(2007). Vote	boycott	threat	in	Nigeria.	[online]	Available	at:	
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2007/04/2008525143811422429.html	[Accessed	9	
Mar.	2019].
Alkali,	Muhammed	N.	(ed)	(1999)	Nigeria	in	the	Transition	Years	1993-1999.	Kuru:	National	
Institute	Press.
Anifowose,	R.	and	Enemuo,	F.	(1999).	Elements	of	politics.	Malthouse.
Asemah,	E.	and	Yaroson,	E.	(2008).	Theories	and	models	of	mass	communication.	Jos:	Great	
future.
Ayandiyi,	A.	(2000).	Agenda	setting	for	political	communication.	A	Nigeria	post-colonial	
experience.	Journal	of	Arts	and	Social	Science.	Vol.	15.	
90
Balkin,	J.	M.	(1999)	“How	mass	media	simulate	political	transparency.”	Journal	for	cultural	
research,	3	(4),	pp.	393-413.
Baran,	J.	C.	&	Swan,	K.	(2007).	Effects	of	media	framing	on	beliefs	and	values	concerning	
detainees,	civil	liberties,	and	national	security	after	9/11.	Journal	of	the	Research	Centerfor	
Education	Technology,	3(1),	13-22.
Baran,	S.	and	Davis,	D.	(2009).	Mass	communication	theory:	foundations,	ferment,	and	future.	
5th	ed.	Boston:	Wadsworth	Cengage	Learning.
BBC	News.	(2007). Nigerians	tense	on	eve	of	polls.	[online]	Available	at:	
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6576077.stm	[Accessed	5	Feb.	2019].
Benoit,	W.	L.	and	Klyukovski,	A.A.	(2006).	A	functional	analysis	of	2004	Ukrainian	presidential	
debates.	Argumentation,	20,	209-225.
Brown,	N.	J.,	and	Udomisor,	I.	W.	(2015).	Evaluation	of	Political	News	Reportage	in	Nigeria’s	
Vanguard	and	The	Guardian	Newspapers.	Advances	in	Journalism	and	
Communication,3,10-18.
Bujra,	J.	(2006).	Leo	Igwe:	Interview	with	a	Nigerian	humanist.	Review	of	African	Political	
Economy,	33(110):740-743.
Busari,	S.	(2012).	Goodluck	Jonathan:	Nigeria’s	Embattled	President.	January	30.	Accessed	on	
CNN	website.
Carragee,	K.	&	Roefs,	W.	(2004).	The	neglect	of	power	in	recent	framing	research.	Journal	of
Communication,	54(2),	214-233.
91
Carstea,	A.	E.	(2012).	Framing	the	2009	Presidential	elections	electoral	campaign	coverage	in	
opinion	article.	Journal	of Media	Research,	2(13),	96-107.
Chiang,	C.-F.,	&	Knight,	B.	(2011).	“Media	bias	and	influence:	Evidence	from	newspaper	
endorsements.”	The	Review	of	Economic	Studies,	rdq037.
Chong,	D.,	&	Druckman,	J.	N.	(2007).	Framing	theory.	Annu.	Rev.	Polit.	Sci.,	10,	103-126.
Chris,	R.	(2002).	Newspaper coverage	of	the	2000	election	in	Japan. New	Zealand	Journal	of	
Asian Studies	4	(1),	119-137.
Curran,	J.	ed.,	(2011).	Media	and	Democracy.	1st	ed.	Oxon:	Routledge.
D’Alessio,	D.,	and	Allen,	M.	(2000).	Media	bias	in	presidential	elections:	A	meta-analysis.	Journal	
of	communication,	50,	133-156.
Daramola,	I.	(2003),	Introduction	to	Mass	Communication.	Lagos:	Rothan	Press.
Daramola,	I.	(2013). History	and	Development	of	Mass	Media	in	Nigeria.	Lagos:	Rothan	Press	
Limited.
DeVresse,	C.	H.	(2005).	News	framing:	Theory	and	typography.	InformationDesign	Journal	&	
Document Design,	13(1),	51-62.
Domingo,	P.	and	Nwankwo,	C.	(2010). Review	of	international	assistance	to	political	party	and	
party	system	development	- Nigeria.	[online]	ODI.	Available	at:	
https://www.odi.org/publications/5536-review-international-assistance-politicalparty-and-party-system-development-nigeria	[Accessed	7	Nov.	2018].
92
Druckman,	J.	N.,	&	Parkin,	M.	(2005).	“The	impact	of	media	bias:	How	editorial	slant	affects	
voters.”	Journal	of	Politics,	67(4),	pp.1030-1049.
Dye,	R.	T.	(2001)	Politics	in	America.	New	Jersey:	Prentice	Hall.
Edogbo,	O. (1999)	“Agenda	setting	role	of	the	mass	media”	in	C.	Okigbo	(ed)	Reporting	politics	
and	public	affairs,	Nairobi,	English	Press.
Egbuna,	B.	(2012)	“Covering	elections:	the	broadcaster’s	responsibility.”	Commonwealth	
Broadcasting	Association	Conference	on	Innovating	for	quality	broadcasting. London:	
Commonwealth	Broadcasting	Association.
Entman,	R.	M.	(1993).	Framing:	Towards	clarification	of	a	fractured	paradigm.	McQuail's
reader	in	mass	communication	theory,	390-397.
Entman,	R.	M.	(2010).	“Media	framing	biases	and	political	power:	Explaining	slant	in	news	of	
Campaign	2008.”	Journalism,	11(4),	pp389-408.
Ezea,	S.	(2015).	Between	Jonathan,	Buhari,	Others:	Election	like	never	before.	The	Guardian,	
27th	March.	Retrieved	from	http://guardianngr/betweenjonathan-buhariotherselection-like-never-before/.
Ezeilo,	J.,	2012.	Gender	Analysis	of	Nigerian	Political	Parties:	Progress	and	Stagnation.	
Unpublished	Paper.
Falana,	F.	(2010).	A	public	lecture	delivered	at	the	51st	birthday	anniversary	of	Rt.	Rev	Alfred	
Adewale	Martins,	Catholic	Bishop	of	Abeokuta,	Ogun	State	on	Saturday	June	5,	
2010.
93
Falola,	Toyin	(2001).	Culture	and	Customs	of	Nigeria.	Westport:	Greenwood	Press.
Fatoba,	W.	(2012). Media	Law	and	Ethics	in	Nigeria:	A	Comparative	Analysis.	2nd	ed.	Indiana:	
Print arts.
Fidelis	C.	A.	(2014).	The	Role	of	the	Mass	Media	in	the	Nigerian	Electoral	Process.Unizik
Journal	of	Arts	and	Humanities,	3(3),	31-34.
Folarin,	B.	(2002)	Theories	of	mass	communication:	an	introductory	text.	Abeokuta:	Link	
Publications.
Fwatshak, U.	S.	(2009).	“Economic	and	Political	Environment	of	Elections	and	Expectations	of	
Nigerians	from	Elections”	in	Journal	of	the	Historical	Society	of	Nigeria.	Vol.	18,	
Special	Edition.
Galadima,	J.D.	&	Enighe,	J.M	(2001).	The	press	in	Nigerian	politics:	A historical	analysis	of	issues	
and	pattern	of	news	coverage.	The	Nigerian	journal	of	communication.	Vol.	1No.1	pp	62	
– 74.
Hopmann,	D.	N.,	de	Vreese,	C.	H.,	&	Albæk,	E.	(2011).	“Incumbency	bonus	in	election	news	
coverage	explained:	The	logics	of	political power	and	the	media	market.”	Journal	of	
Communication,	61(2),	pp.264-282.
Hopmann,	D.	N.,	Elmelund-Praestekaer,	C.,	Albæk,	E.,	Vliegenthart,	R.,	&	de	Vreese,	C.	H.	
(2012).	“Party	media	agenda-setting:	How	parties	influence	election	news	
coverage.”	PartyPolitics,	18(2),	pp.173-191.
94
How	to	steal	yet	another	election.	(2007). The	Economist.	[online]	Available	at:	
https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2007/04/19/how-to-steal-yetanother-election	[Accessed	11	Mar.	2019].
Huntington,	S.	(1991).	“Democracy’s	and	third	wave.”	Journal	of	Democracy,	2(2).
Ibraheem,	I.A.	Ayedun-Aluma,	V.	&	Adewoye,	O.A.	(2013).	Power	asymmetries	and	political	
communication	in	Nigeria:	Challenging	mainstream	model	of	journalism	practice.	
Paper	presented	at	the	Rethinking Media	and	Journalism	Practice	Conference	at	the	
University	of	Winchester,	United	Kingdom.
Ibrahim,	J.	(2006). Research	and	Dialogue	with	Political	Parties.	The	Nigeria	Report.	Stockholm:	
International	IDEA	and	Centre	for	Democracy	and	Development.
Idi,	S.	(2015).	An	Analysis	of	Online	News	Media	Coverage	of	2015	Presidential	Election	in. MCC,	
[online]	1(1),	pp.53-68.	Available	at:	
http://www.unimaid.edu.ng/Journals/Social%20Sciences/Masscomm/MCC%20Vol
%201%20No%201%20June%202017/MCC%20Vol%201%20No%201%20Article%200
4.pdf	[Accessed	8	May	2019].
Iheduru,	O.	(2019).	The	Import	of	the	Media	in	an	Emerging	Democracy:	An	Evaluation	of	the	
Nigerian	Situation. Journal	of	Social	Sciences,	22(1),	pp.33-38.
Iyengar,	S.,	Norpoth,	H.,	&	Hahn,	K.	S.	(2004).	“Consumer	demand	for	election	news:	The	
horserace	sells.”	Journal	of	Politics,	66(1),	pp.157-175.
Jinadu,	L.	Adele	(2011).	“Inter-party	Dialogue	in	Nigeria.	Examining	the	Past,	Present	Parties	
Dialogue	Series”,	held	in	October	4,	2011	at	Bolingo	Hotel,	Abuja.
95
Just,	M.,	Crigler,	A.,	and	Buhr,	T.	(1999).	Voice,	substance,	and	cynicism	in	presidential	
campaign	media.	Political	Communication	journal,	16,	25-44
Konkwo,	D.E.	(2003).	“Role	of	the	mass	media	in	mobilisation	of	the	Nigerian	masses	for	
peaceful	elections.”	Nwosu,	I.E.	(ed.)	Polimedia:	media	and	politics	in	Nigeria.	
Enugu:	African	Council	for	Communication	Education	(ACCE),	pp.	85-92.
Kukah,	M.	H.	(1993).	Religion,	Politics	and	Power	in	Northern	Nigeria.	Ibadan:	Spectrum	Books.	
p.	228.
Kurfi,	M.Y.	(2010)	“The	role	of	mass	media	in	democratic	society:	An	opinion	survey	in	Bayero	
University,	Kano.”	In:	Okwilagwe,	O.A.	(ed.)	Nigeriana	Stirling-Horden	Encyclopaedia	
of	Mass	Media	&	Communication:	Historical	and	Theoretical.	Ibadan:	StirlingHorden	Publishers	Limited,	pp.	289-300.
Lengauer,	G.,	Esser,	F.,	&	Berganza,	R.	(2011).	“Negativity	in	political	news:	A	review	of	
concepts,	operationalizations	and	key	findings.”	Journalism,	1464884911427800.	
Maisel,	L.S.	(2007)	American	political	parties	and	elections:	a	very short	introduction.	New	York:	
Oxford	University	Press.
Mantler,	G.,	and	Whiteman,	D.	(1995).	Attention	to	candidates	and	issues	in	newspaper	
coverage	of	1992	presidential	campaign.	Newspaper	Research	Journal,	16,	14-28.
McCombs,	M.	(2004).	Setting	the	agenda:	The	mass	media	and	public	opinion.	Malden,	MA:	
Blackwell	Publishing	Inc.
McCombs,	M.,	&	Ghanem,	S.	I.	(2001).	The	convergence	of	agenda	setting	and	framing.
Framing	public	life:	Perspectives	on	media	and	our	understanding	of	the	social	
world,	67-81.
96
McCombs,	M.	and	Shaw,	D.	(1972).	The	Agenda-Setting	Function	of	Mass	Media. The	Public	
Opinion	Quarterly,	36(2).
McCombs,	M.	and	Shaw,	D.	(2007). Communication	and	Democracy:	Exploring	the	Intellectual	
Frontiers	in	Agenda-setting	theory.	1st	ed.	London: Mahwah,	N.J.
McQuail,	D.	(2005).	Mass	Communication	Theory 5th	edition.	London:	Sage	Publication.
Muluzi,	B.	(2015). Nigeria	elections	2015:	Interim	statement	by	Commonwealth	Observer	Group.	
[online]	London:	Commonwealth	Secretariat.	Available	at:	
http://thecommonwealth.org/media/news/nigeria-elections-2015-interimstatement-commonwealth-observer-group	[Accessed	10	Jan.	2019].
Ngara,	C.	and	Esebonu,	E.	(2012).	The	Mass	Media	and	the	Struggle	for	Democracy	in	Africa:	
The	Nigerian	Experience. Nordic	Journal	of	African	Studies,	21(4),	pp.183–198.
Nigeria	Democratic	Report	(2015).	Final	report	on	media	coverage	of	2015	elections: A	Monitory	
Scorecard	of	Print	and	Online	media.	Available	at:
http://www.ndr.org.ng/resources2/
Nisbet,	M.	C.	&	Newman,	T.	P.	(2015).	Framing,	the	media,	and	environment	communication.	In	
A.	Hansen	&	Cox,	R.	(eds).	The	Routledge	Handbook	of	Environment	and	
Communication.	New	York:	Routledge.
Niven,	D.	(2001).	“Bias	in	the	News	Partisanship	and	Negativity	in	Media	Coverage	of	Presidents	
George	Bush	and	Bill	Clinton.”	The	Harvard	International	Journal	of Press/Politics,	
6(3),	pp.31-46.
Norris,	P.	(1997)	Electoral	Change	since	1945.	United	Kingdom:	Blackwell	Publishers	Limited.
97
Nwammuo,	A.,	Edegoh,	L.	and	Iwok,	U.	(2015).	Nigerian	Press	Coverage	of	the	2015	Elections:	
What	has	Ownership	Got	to	Do	with	It? International	Journal	of	African	and	Asian	
Studies,	[online]	14.	Available	at:	
https://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JAAS/article/view/26427	[Accessed	3	May	
2019].
O’gara,	E.	K.	(2009).	Framing	of	the2008	Presidential	election	in	print	news.	Graduate	thesis	and	
dissertation	paper	10881.	Retrieved	from	https://lib.driastate.edu/etd.
Obakhedo,	N.O.	(2011)	“Curbing	Electoral	Violence	in	Nigeria:	The	imperative	of	political	
education.”	African	Research	Review International	Multidisciplinary	Journal,	
Ethiopia	Vol.	5,	No.	5.
Obikaeze,	V.	and	Udalla,	E.	(2016).	Party	Politics	and	Electioneering	Campaign	of	P.	D.	P.	/A.	P.	
C.	In	the Nigeria’s	2015, Presidential	Election. African	Journal	of	Politics	and	Society,	
[online]	2(2).	Available	at:	
http://www.academix.ng/search/paper.html?idd=3300014738	[Accessed	11	Jun.	
2019].
Oboh,	G.E.	(2015).	“Reflecting	on	the	Nigerian	media,	elections	and	the	African	Democracy”,	
American	International	Journal	of	Social	Science	Vol.	4,	No.	3.
Odinkalu,	A.	(2001)	“The	Management	of	Transition	to	Civil	Rule	by	the	Military	in	Nigeria	
(1966-1996).	In:	Amuwo,	Kunle	et	al	(eds.),	Nigeria	During	the	Abacha	Years	(1993-
1998)	s. The	Domestic	and International	Politics	of	Democratization.	Ibadan;	
Institution	Fancies	de	Recheuhe	en	Afrique	(IFRA);	2001.
Ojiako,	J.	(1979). 13	years	of	military	rule.	Lagos:	Daily	Times	of	Nigeria	Ltd.
98
Olalekan,	O.	and	Sam,	S.	(2018).	Empirical	and	Methodological	Analysis	of	Political	
Advertisements. Review	of	Journalism	and	Mass	Communication,	[online]	6(1	&	2),	
pp.12-21.	Available	at:	
http://rjmcnet.com/journals/rjmc/Vol_6_No_1_2_December_2018/2.pdf	[Accessed	
10	Jun.	2019].
Olowojolu,	O.	(2016).	Role	of	media	in	2015	presidential	election	in	Nigeria. International	
Journal	of	Politics	and	Good	Governance,	7(7).
Olukotun,	A.	(2014).	Welcome	address/contextual	overview	of	the	Workshop.	In: Reporting	
elections:	A	non-partisan	approach. Iheduru,	O.	ed. Contending	Issues	in	African	
Development:	Advances,	Challenges,	and	the	Future	(Contributions	in	Economics	and	
Economic	History).	Connecticut:	Praeger.
Oksanen,	K.	(2011).	Framing	the	Democracy	debate	in	Hong	Kong.	Journal	of Contemporary	
China,	20(70),	479-497.
Omoera,	O.S.	(2010),	“The	Import	of	the	Media	in	an	Emerging	Democracy:	An	Evaluation	of	the	
Nigerian	Situation”.	Journal	of	Soc.	Sci,	22(1):	33-38.
Orugbani,	A	(2005).	Nigeria	Since	the	19th	Century.	Port	Harcourt:	Paragraphics.
Oseni,	A.	(2015).	Social	Media	Revolutionizes	Nigerian	Election. News diary.	[online]	Available	
at:	https://newsdiaryonline.com/social-media-revolutionizes-nigerian-election-byaudu-liberty-oseni/	[Accessed	6	Apr.	2019].
Overholser,	G.	and	Hall	Jamieson,	K.	(2006).	The	Press.	International	social	science	review,	
[online]	81(3),	pp.191-192.	Available	at:	
99
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262096698_The_Press_by_Geneva_Ove
rholser_Kathleen_Hall_Jamieson	[Accessed	24	Feb.	2019].
Pate,	U.	(2011).	“Media	and	the	process	of	democratization	in	Nigeria.”	In: The	Media	and	
Democracy	in	Nigeria.	[online]	Available	at:	
http://umarpate.blogspot.com/2012/01/media-and-process-of-democratizationin.html	[Accessed	4	Apr.	2019].
Peter	N.	A.	(2012). The	Daily	Graphic	coverage	of	presidential	campaigns	in	Ghana,	1992-2004.
Journal	of	political	science,	government	and	politics.	1(1)	1-15.
Pye,	L.	W.	(1966).	Aspects	of	political	development.	Boston:	Little,	Brown	and	Company
Rasheed,	B.	(2016).	Broadcast	Media	as	an	Instrument	of	Change	during	2015	Electioneering	
Campaigns in	Nigeria. Nigerian	Chapter	of	Arabian	Journal	of	Business	and	Management	
Review,	3(12),	pp.14-27.
Ritzer,	G.	and Goodman,	D.	J.	(2003).	Sociological	Theory. Sixth Edition.	New	York:	McGrawHill.
Robinson,	M.	and	Sheehan,	M.	(1983).	Over	the	Wire	and	on	TV:	CBS	and	UPI	in	Campaign	'80.	
Russell	Sage	Foundation.
Russonello,	J.	and	Wolf,	F.	(1979).	Newspaper	Coverage	of	the	1976	and	1968	Presidential	
Campaigns.	Journalism	&	Mass	Communication	Quarterly,	[online]	56(2).	Available	
at:	
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234570485_Newspaper_Coverage_of_t
he_1976_and_1968_Presidential_Campaigns	[Accessed	30	Feb.	2019].
Salman,	T.	(2006).	Issues	in	Campaign	Expenditure:	Tracking	Political	Advertorials	for	2015	
Presidential	Electioneering	Campaigns	in	Nigeria	from	the	Print	Media.
100
Samuel,	K.	(2015).	Nigeria’s 2015	elections:	Wobbly,	but	on	course.	Vanguard,	February,
22.	Retrieved	from	www.vanguardngr.com/2015/02/nigerias-2015-
electionswobbly-but-on-course/.
Scheufele,	D.	A.,	&	Tewksbury,	D.	(2007).	Framing,	agenda	setting,	and	priming:	The	evolution	
of	three	media	effects	models.	Journal	of	Communication,	57(1),	9-20.
Shoemaker,	P.	J.,	&	Reese,	S.D.	(1991).	Mediating	the	message:	Theories	of	influence	on	mass	
media	content.	White	Plains,	NY:	Longman.	
Sigelman,	L.,	and	Bullock,	D.	(1991).	Candidates,	issues,	horse	races,	and	hoopla:	Presidential	
campaign	coverage,	1888-1988.	American	Politics	Quarterly,	19,	5-32.
Simbine,	A.T.	(2014).	Single	party	dominance	and	democracy	in	Nigeria:	the	people’s
democratic	party.	In	O.	Olu,	E.	Sam, O.	Ibeenu,	and	I.	Jubril,	(Eds.),	Political	Parties	
and	Democracyin	Nigeria	(pp	45-51).	Jos:	Nipss	Kuru.
Siollun,	M.	(2015).	How	Goodluck	Jonathan	lost	the	Nigerian	election. The	Guardian.	[online]	
Available	at:	https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/01/nigeria-electiongoodluck-jonathan-lost	[Accessed	19	Apr.	2019].
Stempel,	G.	H.,	and	Windhauser,	J.	W.	(1991).	Newspaper	coverage	of	the	1984	and	1988	
campaigns.	In	G.	H.	Stempel,	and J.	W.	Windhauser,	(Eds.),	The	media	in	the	1984	
and1988	presidential	campaigns	(pp.	13-66).	New	York:	Greenwood	Press.
Stovall,	J.	G.	(1982).	Foreign	policy	issue	coverage	in	the	1980	presidential	campaign.	Journalism
Quarterly,	59,	531-540.
101
Stromback,	J.,	and	Dimitrova,	D.	V.	(2006).	Political	and	media	systems	matter:	A	comparison	of	
election	news	coverage	in	Sweden	and	the	United	States.	The	Harvard
InternationalJournal	of	Press/Politics,	11,	131-147.
Swanson,	D.	L.	(2004).	Transnational	Trends	in Political	Communication:	Conventional	Views	
and	New	Realities.	In	F.	Esser,	and	B.	Pfetsch	(Eds.),	Comparing	Political	
Communication: Theories,	Cases	and	Challenges	(pp.	134-140).	Cambridge:
Cambridge	University	Press.
Tankard,	J.	W.	(2001).	The	empirical	approach	to	the	study	of	media	framing.	Framing	public	
life:	Perspectives	on	media	and	our	understanding	of	the	social	world,	95-106.
Temitope,	O.	and	Ahmad,	R.	(2017).	The	role	of	social	media	during	the	2015	voting	process	in	
Nigeria. Research	Journal	of	Applied	Sciences,	[online]	12(2),	pp.281-287.	Available	
at:	http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/medwelljournals/rjasci/2017/281-287.pdf	[Accessed	
2	Feb.	2019].
The	least	awful.	(2015). The	Economist.	[online]	Available	at:	
https://www.economist.com/leaders/2015/02/05/the-least-awful	[Accessed	6	Jun.	
2019].
Uhunmwbangho,	A.	(2008).	“Electoral	Fraud	and	other	Malpractices	in	Nigeria:	The	Way	Out”,
The	Constitution,	Vol.	8,	No.1	March,	pp.	24-33.
Walter,	A.	S.,	&	Vliegenthart,	R.	(2010).	“Negative	campaigning	across	different	communication	
channels:	different	ball	games?”	The	International	Journal	of Press/Politics,	15(4),	
pp.	441-461.
102
Yaqub,	N.	(2015).	The	mass	media	and	the	2015	General	elections.	Being	paper	submitted	to	
the	National	Conference	organized	by	the	Electoral	Institute	of	the independent	
National	Electoral	Commission,	Abuja,	June	2015.
Young,	C. (1993).	The	Politics	of	Cultural	Pluralism.	Wisconsin:	University	Press.
Zafar,	A.	(2013).	Comparative	analysis	of	political	parties’	news	and	advertisement	coverage	of
national	Urdu	dailies	regarding	election.	Pakistan:	ab	press.